Zh-hans:土地覆被

要素 : Zh-hans:土地覆被

说明

Is used to describe the physical material at the surface of the earth. Land covers include grass, asphalt, trees, bare ground, water, etc.

标签

landuse=* natural=* surface=* landcover=*

土地覆被(Landcover)用于描述覆盖地表的自然和人工营造物的综合体。土地覆被包括草，沥青，树木，裸露的地面，水等。另见描述人类对土地使用的土地利用，包括诸如landuse=farmland, leisure=park或amenity=school。

目前，通常仅通过其他标签来暗示对土地覆盖物进行标记，例如，可以假定一个公园被草覆盖，但是在某些地方，这实际上可能是树木或沙子或其他覆盖物。 以下关键字暗示或明确指示了土地覆被的属性：

• landuse=* - many types of Landuse imply a certain type of landcover (like landuse=meadow) but some do not (like landuse=military) and others can be ambiguous in this regard, like in case of landuse=greenfield, which can imply any type of vegetation or bare ground. Same applies for other keys indicating Landuse like amenity=*, leisure=* and tourism=*.
• surface=* - specifies the surface material of a feature such as a highway, parking lot, sporting pitch, or beach. It is used as a secondary tag for a main feature.
• natural=* - many tags in this key are used to tag Natural or semi-natural area features with a clearly implied landcover. Some tags do not specify a particular surface or landcover, for example: natural=beach uses surface=* for the specific surface material, and natural=desert, which requires mapping more specific area features such as natural=sand and natural=scrub to define the landcover.
• landcover=* - this key was proposed in Proposed features/landcover to directly tag landcover types, but is much less commonly used.

One of the most controversial cases for landcover mapping is woodland/forests. Some mappers use landuse=forest or natural=wood for any area covered by trees, while other mappers prefer to use these tags in particular ways. See Forest for more details.

The key used does not always specify a difference between landuse or landcover. For example landuse=grass usually describes an area covered by grass, rather than a specific landuse. Similarly, landuse=reservoir and landuse=basin are used for the area covered by water in artificial lakes and basins, rather than for the entire land area associated with the reservoir or basin.

当前土地覆被标签示例

The following list is incomplete. Please add to it. The table is sortable by clicking on the relevant column heading.

The column NLCD92 refers to the classification according to the National Land Cover Database, see more below.

天然和半天然地区

Landcover	NLCD92	Category	Comment
Bog	92 Herbaceous Wetlands	Natural	natural=wetland and wetland=bog. Also see wetland=fen.
Bare earth	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural or Developed	See mud below for usually-wet areas of bare loam, silt or clay soil. No well-document tag for bare, dry soil in cold or hot deserts, except natural=sand. May be included in natural=tundra and natural=desert currently, but these tags are not specific.
Bracken (ferns)	71 Grasslands/Herbaceous	Natural or Agriculture	Areas covered by ferns are usually tagged with natural=grassland or landuse=meadow. There is no documented, more specific tag yet.
Forest, Deciduous	41 Deciduous forest	Natural or Agriculture	landuse=forest or natural=wood with leaf_cycle=deciduous. Also see swamp wetland. See leaf_type=* as well.
Forest, Evergreen	42 Evergreen forest	Natural or Agriculture	landuse=forest or natural=wood with leaf_cycle=evergreen. Also see swamp and mangrove wetlands. See leaf_type=* as well.
Forest, Mixed	43 Mixed forest	Natural or Agriculture	landuse=forest or natural=wood with leaf_cycle=mixed. Also see swamp wetland. See leaf_type=* as well.
Grass	71 Grasslands/Herbaceous	Natural or Agriculture	landuse=grass, landuse=meadow, natural=grassland, or surface=grass + another feature are used for areas covered by grasses, pulses and sedges. Sometimes includes other non-woody plants.
Gravel	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural or Developed	natural=scree or natural=shingle, or surface=gravel + another features. There are a few uses of natural=gravel but this tag is undocumented. Also see landuse=quarry for gravel extraction sites and surface=gravel for gravel-surfaced man-made features such as roads, parking lots.
Heath	51 Shrubland	Natural	natural=heath is used for heath and other areas of dwarf shrubs.
Herbs	71 Grasslands/Herbaceous	Natural	landuse=meadow or natural=grassland are sometimes used for areas covered by non-woody plants in addition to the usual grasses, pulses and sedges.
Ice	12 Perennial Ice/Snow	Natural	natural=glacier is used for glaciers and ice caps. Note that in Antartica south of 60 degrees, all land is assumed to be ice-covered and is not specifically mapped. Sea ice is not mapped.
Lichen	N/A	Natural	No documented specific tag. Usually tagged as unvegetated with natural=bare_rock or included in a larger area of natural=tundra or natural=fell.
Marsh	92 Herbaceous Wetlands	Natural	natural=wetland and wetland=marsh. Also see wetland=saltmarsh
Mangrove	91 Woody Wetlands	Natural	natural=wetland and wetland=mangrove
Mosses	N/A	Natural	wetland=bog or wetland=fen + natural=wetland for bogs and fens. No documented specific tag for other moss areas. Sometimes included in a larger area of natural=tundra or natural=fell.
Mud	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural	natural=mud or natural=wetland with a supplemental tag wetland=mud or wetland=tidalflat.
Pebbles	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural	natural=shingle or natural=beach + surface=pebbles.
Reedbed	92 Herbaceous Wetlands	Natural	natural=wetland and wetland=reedbed
Reef	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural	natural=reef + reef=* or surface=* to specify rock/coral/etc - including reefs which are partially above sea level at low tide.
Rock	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural	natural=bare_rock for bedrock Also see natural=scree and natural=shingle for loose stones.
Saltmarsh	92 Herbaceous Wetlands	Natural	natural=wetland and wetland=saltmarsh
Sand	Natural	Natural	natural=sand. Also see natural=beach + surface=sand
Scrub	51 Shrubland	Natural	natural=scrub is used for areas of shrubs and bushes
Stones	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural	natural=scree, natural=shingle, or natural=beach + surface=stones. Also see natural=bare_rock for bedrock and large stones.
Sea	11 Open Water	Natural	The natural=coastline tag is used to define the boundary between land and the sea (at the high water mark). The boundary between the land and the sea is rich in different landcovers, see 'gravel', 'mangrove', 'saltmarsh', 'sand', 'swamp' and 'tidal flat'.
Shoal	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural	natural=shoal + surface=* to specify a shallow area in the sea, exposed at low tide, covered by sand/gravel/etc.
Swamp	91 Woody Wetlands	Natural	natural=wetland and wetland=swamp
Snow	12 Perennial Ice/Snow	Natural	Snowfields are not included in Openstreetmap, because they are not permanent features. Instead map the summer vegetation or exposed minerals. However, permanent ice caps and glaciers are mapped with natural=glacier, see ice above.
Tidal flat	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay	Natural	natural=wetland and wetland=tidalflat
Trees	41 Deciduous / 42 Evergreen / 43 Mixed forest	Natural or Agriculture	Currently landuse=forest and natural=wood are both commonly used for any tree-covered area, although some mappers use these tags in more specific ways. Also see swamp and mangrove wetlands. See leaf_cycle=* for evergreen vs deciduous and leaf_type=* for needleleaved vs broadleaved vs leafless.
Water	11 Open Water	Natural or Developed	waterway=riverbank, natural=water, landuse=reservoir. See also: 'sea' and landuse=basin. For areas intermittently covered by water add intermittent=yes. The dry landcover may also be mapped separately.

农业，已开发和建筑地区

Many tags for landuse, leisure and developed areas also imply a particular landcover. See Landuse for more examples.

Landcover	NLCD92	Category	Comment
Allotments	82 Row Crops	Agriculture	landuse=allotments - allotment gardens, usually herbaceous crops and ornamentals
Basin	11 Open Water	Water	landuse=basin - a man made water control or storage device. Used only for the (intermittently) water-covered area
Brownfield	33 Transitional	Developed	landuse=brownfield - land scheduled for new development which was previously used for industrial purposes, generally industrial landcover.
商业区	23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation	Developed	landuse=commercial - office and non-retail service buildings.
建设区域	33 Transitional	Developed	landuse=construction - area currently under construction
Fallow	84 Fallow	Agriculture	No specific tag has been documented. landuse=farmland is often used for fallow land. landuse=meadow may be used when the area is covered in grasses.
农场	82 Row Crops/83 Grains	Agriculture	landuse=farmland is most commonly used for row crops and grains
花园	85 Urban/Recreational grasses	Leisure	leisure=garden - gardens with grasses, flowers, herbs and ornamental shrubs.
Garages	23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation	Transportation	landuse=garages - covered motor vehicle parking garages
Greenhouses	N/A	Agriculture	landuse=greenhouse_horticulture - agricultural area covered in greenhouses
Industrial	23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation	Developed	landuse=industrial - Industrial buildings, works, warehouses and associated infrastructure.
Landfill	33 Transitional	Developed	landuse=landfill - waste / rubbish / trash and debris.
草甸	81 Pasture/Hay	Agriculture	landuse=meadow - also used for pastures, both covered with grasses and herbs.一种以多年生草本为主体的植被类型。
Mine (open pit)	32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel Pits	Developed	landuse=quarry - used for quarries and open pit mines with exposed minerals.
Orchard	61 Orchards/Vineyards	Agriculture	landuse=orchard - also used for coffee, tea and palm oil plantations
停车场	23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation	Transportation	amenity=parking, amenity=motorcycle_parking or amenity=bicycle_parking. Specific parking lot surface is tagged with surface=*.
Pasture	81 Pasture/Hay	Agriculture	landuse=meadow - used for meadow or pasture covered with grasses and herbs.
Plant nursery	N/A	Agriculture	landuse=plant_nursery - growing plants, shrubs and trees
Plantation	61 Orchards/Vineyards	Agriculture	landuse=orchard - for coffee, tea, banana and oil palm plantations
Quarry	32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel Pits	Developed	landuse=quarry - rock, gravel or sand.
Railway	23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation	Transportation	landuse=railway - railway tracks, embankments, yards, etc.
Recreation ground	85 Urban/Recreational grasses	Developed	landuse=recreation_ground - usually grass. Also see park
Reservoir	11 Open Water	Water	landuse=reservoir or man_made=reservoir_covered or newer tagging natural=water + water=reservoir - water areas.
Residential	21/22 Low/High Intensity Residential	Developed	landuse=residential - houses or other residential buildings and associated yards, lawns, gardens, garages and parking.
Retail	23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation	Developed	landuse=retail - retail buildings and related features.
Salt pond	11 Open Water	Water	landuse=salt_pond - salt or (intermittent) water surface.
Village green	85 Urban/Recreational grasses	Leisure	landuse=village_green - grassy area
Vineyard	61 Orchards/Vineyards	Agriculture	landuse=vineyard - grape vines

提议

• Proposed features/landcover
• Landcover proposal update 2014
• Land use and areas of natural land

土地覆被分类系统

The landcover classification systems mentioned in the following are all based on the notion that all land surface can be classified into a limited set of landcover classes, either a fixed a priori classification or a dynamic set of a certain number of classes. Since OpenStreetMap uses a globally uniform but open tagging system - see Any tags you like - neither of these can be directly translated into OSM tag combinations.

先验和后验系统

In an a priori classification system the classes are abstractions of the types actually occurring. The approach is based upon definition of classes before any data collection actually takes place. This means that all possible combinations of diagnostic criteria must be dealt with beforehand in the classification. The main advantage is that classes are standardized independent of the area and the means used. The disadvantage, however, is that this method is rigid, as some of the field samples may not be easily assignable to one of the pre-defined classes.

A posteriori classification differs fundamentally by its direct approach and its freedom from preconceived notions. The approach is based upon definition of classes after clustering similarity or dissimilarity of the field samples collected. The advantage of this type of classification is its flexibility and adaptability compared to the implicit rigidity of the a priori classification. The a posteriori approach implies a minimum of generalization. This type of classification better fits the collected field observations in a specific area. At the same time, however, because an a posteriori classification depends on the specific area described and is adapted to local conditions, it is unable to define standardized classes. Clustering of samples to define the classes can only be done after data collection, and the relevance of certain criteria in a certain area may be limited when used elsewhere or in ecologically quite different regions.

NLCD92 - National Land Cover Database

National Land Cover Database (NLCD) is a land cover classification scheme that has been applied consistently across all 50 United States and Puerto Rico. NLCD is based primarily on Landsat satellite data.

NLCD 92 Land Cover Class Definitions

Main class	Sub-classes	Picture
Water	11 Open Water 12 Perennial Ice/Snow
Developed	21 Low Intensity Residential 22 High Intensity Residential 23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation
Barren Land	31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay 32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel Pits 33 Transitional
Forested Upland	41 Deciduous Forest 42 Evergreen Forest 43 Mixed Forest
Shrubland	51 Shrubland
Non-Natural Woody	61 Orchards/Vineyards/Other
Herbaceous Upland Natural/Semi-natural Vegetation	71 Grasslands/Herbaceous
Herbaceous Planted/Cultivated	81 Pasture/Hay 82 Row Crops 83 Small Grains 84 Fallow 85 Urban/Recreational grasses
Wetlands	91 Woody Wetlands 92 Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands
See USGS landcover classes.

LCCS - Land Cover Classification System

The Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) is the result of an initiative to take a first step towards an internationally agreed reference base for land cover. The objectives of the Africover Programme of the Environment and Natural Resources Service (SDRN), FAO, are to develop an approach for conceptualizing, defining and classifying land cover.

Definition: Land cover is the observed (bio)physical cover on the earth's surface.

One of the basic principles adopted in the new approach is that a given land cover class is defined by the combination of a set of independent diagnostic attributes, the so-called classifiers. There are 83 main classifiers (Type A), 13 Type B, 19 Type C, 3 Type D, 7 Type E, 10 Type F, 2 Type G (numbers are not approved).

The creation of the land cover class is given by the combination of a set of pre-defined pure land cover classifiers. This set of classifiers is different for each of the eight main land cover types. E.g. trees can have classifier A1 or A3; shrubs can have A2 or A4; B1 stands for large to medium sized fields or height 7-2m or Dunes.

The main criteria is the uppermost canopy layer. This means that the dominant layer goes from Tree canopy to Shrub to Herbaceous/Forbs/Graminoids.

The user can describe up to three layers of stratification (including the main layer) for Terrestrial Vegetation (A12) and up to two layers in Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Vegetation (A24). "Tree Savannah" is clearly defined by two main elements: a Herbaceous vegetation layer and a Sparse Trees layer. Thus, the Stratification of the two elements Herbaceous and Tree layer is crucial for the definition of this class. "Closed Forest" is clearly defined by the element of a Closed Trees layer. Limitations have been introduced for this class in the use of Stratification. All limitations in use of Stratification are built into the software application.

It is crucial where the classifier (e.g. trees) appears, in the main layer or second or third layer.

Examples for results of LCCS-Code in main type A12. Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation:

• A3.A10 - Closed forest
• A3.A10.B2.C1.D1.E2 - Broadleaved dedicious forest
• A3.A10.B2.C1.D1.E2.F2.F5.F7.G2 - Multi-layered broadleaved dedicious forest
• this combinations have a completely different meaning in other main types

LCCS Landcover Classification

Main types	Classifier	Classifier	Classifier	Picture	Some possible results after classification
A11. Cultivated and Managed Terrestrial Areas	A1. Trees	A7. Broadleaved	Leaf Phenology		Tree Crops Shrub Crops Herbaceous Crops Graminoid Crops Non-Graminoid Crops Managed Lands
		A8. Needleleaved	Leaf Phenology
	A2. Shrubs	A7. Broadleaved	Leaf Phenology
		A8. Needleleaved	Leaf Phenology
	A3. Herbaceous	A4. Graminoids
		A5. Non Graminoids
	A6. Urban vegetated areas	A11. Parks
		A12. Parklands
		A13. Lawns
A12. Natural and Semi-Natural Vegetation	A1. Woody	A3. Trees	Cover Height Leaf type Leaf Phenology		Forest Woodland Thicket Shrubland Grasslands Sparse Vegetation Lichens/Mosses
		A4. Shrubs	Cover Height Leaf type Leaf Phenology
	A2. Herbaceous	A5. Forbs
		A6. Graminoid
	A7. Lichens/Mosses	A8. Lichens
		A9. Mosses
A23. Cultivated aquatic or regulary flooded areas	A1. Graminoids				Aquatic Or Regularly Flooded Graminoid Crops Aquatic Or Regularly Flooded Non-Graminoid Crops
	A2. Non graminoids
	A3. Woody
A24. Natural and Semi-Natural Aquatic or Regularly Flooded Vegetation	A1. Woody	A3. Trees			Forest Woodland Closed Shrubs Open Shrubs Grasslands Sparse Vegetation Lichens/Mosses
		A4. Shrubs
	A2. Herbaceous	A5. Forbs
		A6. Graminoid
	A7. Lichens/Mosses	A10. Lichens
		A11. Mosses
B15. Artificial Surfaces and Associated Areas:	A1. Built-up	A3. Linear	A7. Roads		Built-Up Areas Non Built-Up Areas
			A10. Railroads
			A11. Pipelines
		A4. Non Linear	A12. Industrial Areas
			A11. Urban Areas
	A2. Non built-up	A5. Waste dump deposits
		A6. Extraction sites
B16. Bare Areas	A1. Consolidated	A3. Bare Rock a/o Coarse Fragments	A7. Bare Rock		Consolidated Areas Unconsolidated Areas
			A8. Gravel
		A4. Hardpans	A9 Ironpan A10 Petrocalcic A11 Petrogypsic
	A2. Unconsolidated	A5. Bare Soil	Not stony
			A12. Stony
			A13. Very stony
		A6. Loose and shifting sand	Not stony
			A12. Stony
			A13. Very stony
B27. Artificial Waterbodies, Snow and Ice:	A1. Artificial Waterbodies	A4. Flowing			Artificial Waterbodies Artificial Snow Artificial Ice
		A5. Standing
	A2. Artificial Snow
	A3. Artificial Ice
B28. Natural Waterbodies, Snow and Ice:	A1. Natural Waterbodies	A4. Flowing			Natural Waterbodies Natural Snow Natural Ice
		A5. Standing
	A2. Natural Snow
	A3. Natural Ice
See Land Cover Classification System (LCCS).